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Bibliography for the L2 Learning Myths Series

Here is the bibliographical reference list for the research and researchers discussed in our series, organized by the specific theories or "myths" they address. Understand that these are not academic refs. Instead of listing an original paper, where the date is defining the "ownership" of an idea, they may be summary work written years after the original. What they have in common in my eyes is that they are good intros, summaries, or commentaries to the topic/ideas presented. I commented on some to explain why I chose that specific work. You may find that, as often happens, myths originated in a misunderstood research rather than an incorrect theory or even hypo.

1. Dr. Lara Bryfonski (The AMA Host)

Dr. Lara Bryfonski is an applied linguist whose work focuses on TBLT (Task-Based Language Teaching), interaction, and corrective feedback. Dr. Lara Bryfonski's research focuses on a variety of topics in second language acquisition. Alma mater: Georgetown University. Prof / personal

  • The trigger for this series of posts: reddit r/languagelearning AMA thread
  • Bryfonski, L., & Mackey, A. (2024). The Art and Science of Language Teaching: A Comprehensive Framework for Second Language Learning. ISBN: 978-1108833953 Cambridge University Press
  • Bryfonski, L. (2021). Current trends in TBLT: The intersection of task-based interaction, corrective feedback, and individual differences. Language Teaching, 54(4). entry

2. Paul Nation (The Four Strands & Extensive Reading)

Prof. Nation advocates for a balanced curriculum. He supports Comprehensible Input (via Extensive Reading) but argues it constitutes only 25% of the necessary work (Meaning-Focused Input). He argues that input alone is insufficient because it does not sufficiently train productive skills or fluency. John Macalister is Professor in Applied Linguistics at Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand. Paul Nation is Professor Emeritus in Applied Linguistics at Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand.

  • Key Paper (The Framework): Nation, P. (2007). The Four Strands. International Journal of Innovation in English Language Teaching and Research, 1(1), 1-13. Victoria University of Wellington (Official PDF)
  • Nation, P. (2001). Learning Vocabulary in Another Language. Cambridge University Press. (Discusses how vocabulary is acquired through the four strands). ISBN: 978-1107623026
  • Nation, P., & Macalister, J. (2010). Language Curriculum Design. Routledge. ISBN: 9780429203763
  • On Extensive Reading: Nation, P. (2015). Principles guiding vocabulary learning through extensive reading. (He argues learners need 98% vocabulary coverage for unassisted reading). entry
  • Input For Language Learning | Professor Paul Nation is a relevant short video that features Professor Paul Nation discussing the importance of input and the balance of activities.

3. Stephen Krashen (Comprehensible Input)

The originator of the Input Hypothesis, arguing that we acquire language only when we understand messages (CI). Not necessarily that we acquire language only this way.

  • Seminal Book (Input Hypothesis): Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. Pergamon Press. ISBN: 978-0080286280 Link (Free Official PDF)

  • Krashen, S. (1985). The Input Hypothesis: Issues and Implications. Longman. ISBN: 978-0582553811

4. Output and Interaction (Busting the "Input Only" Myth)

The Output Hypothesis: Merrill Swain argued that Comprehensible Input (CI) is necessary but insufficient for language acquisition. Output plays three critical roles: The Noticing Function (making learners realize what they don't know), The Hypothesis Testing Function (trying out a new form and getting feedback), and The Metalinguistic Function (reflecting on language use).

  • Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: Some roles of comprehensible input and comprehensible output in its development. In S. Gass & C. Madden (Eds.), Input in Second Language Acquisition (pp. 235-253). Newbury House. ISBN: 978-0883772096 Some badly scanned PDFs.
  • Swain, M. (1995). Three functions of output in second language learning. In G. Cook & B. Seidlhofer (Eds.), Principle and Practice in Applied Linguistics (pp. 125-144). Oxford University Press. ISBN: 978-0194421485

The Interaction Hypothesis: Michael Long, in his revised hypothesis, emphasizes that interaction-based adjustments (e.g., repeating, clarifying, confirming) which happen during negotiation for meaning are what facilitate acquisition. Input alone lacks this crucial feedback loop.

  • Long, M. (1983). Native speaker/non-native speaker conversation and the negotiation of comprehensible input. Applied Linguistics, 4, 126-141. entry
  • Long, M. (1996). The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. In W. C. Ritchie & T. K. Bhatia (Eds.), Handbook of Second Language Acquisition (pp. 413-468). Academic Press. ISBN: 978-0125890427

Synthesis (Input, Interaction, Output): Gass and Mackey synthesize these positions, stressing that the combination of Input, Interaction, and Output is essential. The struggle to simultaneously understand and be understood in a communicative situation is what promotes automaticity and moves knowledge from understanding (input) to usable skill (fluency/output).

  • Gass, S., & Mackey, A. (2006). Input, interaction and output: An overview. AILA Review, 19, 3-17. DOI: 10.1075/aila.19.04gas

5. Age, Acquisition Speed and Critical Period

The Critical Period Hypothesis (The Origin): While the CPH (Lenneberg, 1967) suggests a decline in the ability to achieve native-like abilities after a certain age (often puberty), its absolute nature is heavily debated. Many studies show that dedicated, motivated adult learners can achieve very high levels of proficiency, challenging the notion of an absolute block to fluency. Cognitive Advantage: Studies contrasting classroom learners show that adults are superior at explicit learning (like grammar rules). While children may achieve higher ultimate attainment (native-like accent/grammar) due to the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH), adults are quicker and more efficient at getting started and reaching high proficiency levels.

  • Lenneberg, E. H. (1967). Biological Foundations of Language. Wiley. ISBN: 978-0898747003

Adults Learn Faster Initially, seminal study showing that adolescents and adults outperformed young children in the short term (first year of naturalistic learning). Research consistently shows that adults and older adolescents acquire L2 skills faster in the initial stages than younger children. Adults' superior cognitive skills (explicit memory, analytical ability, focus) allow them to process and learn language rules and vocabulary more efficiently. Snow and Hoefnagel-Höhle conducted longitudinal studies that showed older learners were faster and more efficient than younger learners across several language skills in the short term. Adults use better learning strategies and have more advanced executive functioning. The consensus is that children have a better chance at high ultimate attainment (specifically phonology/accent) due to developmental windows, while adults have an advantage in the initial speed and efficiency of acquiring grammar and vocabulary due to their analytic capabilities.

  • Snow, C. E., & Hoefnagel-Höhle, M. (1978). The Critical Period for Language Acquisition: Evidence from Second Language Learning. Child Development, 49(4), 1114-1128. Link

6. Defining Fluency and Accent

Objective Measures of Fluency: Researchers like Lennon and Riggenbach define fluency in temporal terms (time-based): Rate of speech (syllables per minute), Pause phenomena (frequency and length of pauses, filled pauses like "um"), and Repairs/Reticulations (self-corrections). The presence of a non-native accent does not automatically decrease temporal fluency.

  • Lennon, P. (1990). Investigating fluency in EFL: A quantitative approach. Language Learning, 40, 387-417. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-1770.1990.tb00669.x
  • Riggenbach, H. (1991). Toward an understanding of fluency: A microanalysis of nonnative speaker conversations. Discourse Processes, 14, 423-441. link

Fluency vs. Accent, Perception Studies: Studies that ask native speakers to rate L2 speech often show that perceived fluency and perceived accent are only weakly correlated, confirming that listeners can judge the flow of speech independently of the speaker's accent.

  • Derwing, T. M., Munro, M. J., Thomson, R. I., & Rossiter, M. J. (2009). The relationship between L2 fluency and other measures of oral production. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 31(4), 533-557. DOI: 10.1017/S027226310999002X

7. The 10,000 Hour Rule (Expertise & Deliberate Practice)

The Original Study (The "10,000 Hour" source)

  • Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. T., & Tesch-Römer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review, 100(3), 363–406. CMU Psychology Dept PDF

The Rebuttal (Variance in hours)

  • Macnamara, B. N., Hambrick, D. Z., & Oswald, F. L. (2014). Deliberate practice and performance in music, games, sports, education, and professions: A meta-analysis. Psychological Science, 25(8), 1608-1618. link

 

Series: Busting myths to learn better

This post series covers L2 learning myths, curriculum, effort, and other brain myths. It is capped by an overview serving as a practical roadmap. This four-part series is dedicated to cutting through the confusion of language acquisition. We need to move beyond tempting myths and unstructured study habits to build a clear, research-backed framework for mastery.